FREE ESSAY ON RUNNING PHYSIOLOGY

RUNNING PHYSIOLOGY

The Effects Of Altitude On Human Physiology
Changes in altitude have a profound effect on the human body. The body attempts to
maintain a
state of homeostasis or balance to ensure the optimal operating environment for its
complex
chemical systems. Any change from this homeostasis is a change away from the optimal
operating
environment. The body attempts to correct this imbalance. One such imbalance is the
effect of
increasing altitude on the body's ability to provide adequate oxygen to be utilized in
cellular
respiration. With an increase in elevation, a typical occurrence when climbing mountains,
the body
is forced to respond in various ways to the changes in external environment. Foremost of
these
changes is the diminished ability to obtain oxygen from the atmosphere. If the adaptive
responses
to this stressor are inadequate the performance of body systems may decline dramatically.
If
prolonged the results can be serious or even fatal. In looking at the effect of altitude
on body
functioning we first must understand what occurs in the external environment at higher
elevations
and then observe the important changes that occur in the internal environment of the body
in
response.
HIGH ALTITUDE
In discussing altitude change and its effect on the body mountaineers generally define
altitude
according to the scale of high (8,000 - 12,000 feet), very high (12,000 - 18,000 feet),
and
extremely high (18,000+ feet), (Hubble, 1995). A common misperception of the change in
external environment with increased altitude is that there is decreased oxygen. This is
not correct
as the concentration of oxygen at sea level is about 21% and stays relatively unchanged
until over
50,000 feet (Johnson, 1988).
What is really happening is that the atmospheric pressure is decreasing and subsequently
the
amount of oxygen available in a single breath of air is significantly less. At sea level
the barometric
pressure averages 760 mmHg while at 12,000 feet it is only 483 mmHg. This decrease in
total
atmospheric pressure means that there are 40% fewer oxygen molecules per breath at this
altitude
compared to sea level (Princeton, 1995).
HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The human respiratory system is responsible for bringing oxygen into the body and
transferring it
to the cells where it can be utilized for cellular activities. It also removes carbon
dioxide from the
body. The respiratory system draws air initially either through the mouth or nasal
passages. Both
of these passages join behind the hard palate to form the pharynx. At the base of the
pharynx are
two openings. One, the esophagus, leads to the digestive system while the other, the
glottis, leads
to the lungs. The epiglottis covers the glottis when swallowing so that food does not
enter the
lungs. When the epiglottis is not covering the opening to the lungs air may pass freely
into and out
of the trachea.
The trachea sometimes called the windpipe branches into two bronchi which in turn lead to
a
lung. Once in the lung the bronchi branch many times into smaller bronchioles which
eventually
terminate in small sacs called alveoli. It is in the alveoli that the actual transfer of
oxygen to the
blood takes place.
The alveoli are shaped like inflated sacs and exchange gas through a membrane. The
passage of
oxygen into the blood and carbon dioxide out of the blood is dependent on three major
factors:
1) the partial pressure of the gases, 2) the area of the pulmonary surface, and 3) the
thickness of
the membrane (Gerking, 1969). The membranes in the alveoli provide a large surface area
for the
free exchange of gases. The typical thickness of the pulmonary membrane is less than the
thickness of a red blood cell. The pulmonary surface and the thickness of the alveolar
membranes
are not directly affected by a change in altitude. The partial pressure of oxygen,
however, is
directly related to altitude and affects gas transfer in the alveoli.
GAS TRANSFER
To understand gas transfer it is important to first understand something about the
behavior of
gases. Each gas in our atmosphere exerts its own pressure and acts independently of the
others.
Hence the term partial pressure refers to the contribution of each gas to the entire
pressure of the
atmosphere. The average pressure of the atmosphere at sea level is approximately 760
mmHg.
This means that the pressure is great enough to support a column of mercury (Hg) 760 mm
high.
To figure the partial pressure of oxygen you start with the percentage of oxygen present
in the
atmosphere which is about 20%. Thus oxygen will constitute 20% of the total atmospheric
pressure at any given level. At sea level the total atmospheric pressure is 760 mmHg so
the partial
pressure of O2 would be approximately 152 mmHg.
760 mmHg x 0.20 = 152 mmHg
A similar computation can be made for CO2 if we know that the concentration is
approximately
4%. The partial pressure of CO2 would then be about 0.304 mmHg at sea level.
Gas transfer at the alveoli follows the rule of simple diffusion. Diffusion is movement
of molecules
along a concentration gradient from an area of high concentration to an area of lower
concentration. Diffusion is the result of collisions between molecules. In areas of
higher
concentration there are more collisions. The net effect of this greater number of
collisions is a
movement toward an area of lower concentration. In Table 1 it is apparent that the
concentration
gradient favors the diffusion of oxygen into and carbon dioxide out of the blood
(Gerking, 1969).
Table 2 shows the decrease in partial pressure of oxygen at increasing altitudes (Guyton,
1979).
Table 1
ATMOSPHERIC AIR ALVEOLUS VENOUS BLOOD
OXYGEN 152 mmHg (20%) 104 mmHg (13.6%) 40 mmHg
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.304 mmHg (0.04%) 40 mmHg (5.3%) 45 mmHg
Table 2
ALTITUDE (ft.) BAROMETRIC PRESSURE (mmHg) Po2 IN AIR (mmHg) Po2 IN
ALVEOLI (mmHg) ARTERIAL OXYGEN SATURATION (%)
0 760 159* 104 97
10,000 523 110 67 90
20,000 349 73 40 70
30,000 226 47 21 20
40,000 141 29 8 5
50,000 87 18 1 1
*this value differs from table 1 because the author used the value for the concentration
of O2 as
21%.
The author of table 1 choose to use the value as 20%.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
In a normal, non-stressed state, the respiratory system transports oxygen from the lungs
to the
cells of the body where it is used in the process of cellular respiration. Under normal
conditions
this transport of oxygen is sufficient for the needs of cellular respiration. Cellular
respiration
converts the energy in chemical bonds into energy that can be used to power body
processes.
Glucose is the molecule most often used to fuel this process although the body is capable
of using
other organic molecules for energy.
The transfer of oxygen to the body tissues is often called internal respiration
(Grollman, 1978).
The process of cellular respiration is a complex series of chemical steps that ultimately
allow for
the breakdown of glucose into usable energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
The
three main steps in the process are: 1) glycolysis, 2) Krebs cycle, and 3) electron
transport
system. Oxygen is required for these processes to function at an efficient level. Without
the
presence of oxygen the pathway for energy production must proceed anaerobically.
Anaerobic
respiration sometimes called lactic acid fermentation produces significantly less ATP (2
instead of
36/38) and due to this great inefficiency will quickly exhaust the available supply of
glucose. Thus
the anaerobic pathway is not a permanent solution for the provision of energy to the body
in the
absence of sufficient oxygen.
The supply of oxygen to the tissues is dependent on: 1) the efficiency with which blood
is
oxygenated in the lungs, 2) the efficiency of the blood in delivering oxygen to the
tissues, 3) the
efficiency of the respiratory enzymes within the cells to transfer hydrogen to molecular
oxygen
(Grollman, 1978). A deficiency in any of these areas can result in the body cells not
having an
adequate supply of oxygen. It is this inadequate supply of oxygen that results in
difficulties for the
body at higher elevations.
ANOXIA
A lack of sufficient oxygen in the cells is called anoxia. Sometimes the term hypoxia,
meaning less
oxygen, is used to indicate an oxygen debt. While anoxia literally means no oxygen it is
often
used interchangeably with hypoxia. There are different types of anoxia based on the cause
of the
oxygen deficiency. Anoxic anoxia refers to defective oxygenation of the blood in the
lungs. This is
the type of oxygen deficiency that is of concern when ascending to greater altitudes with
a
subsequent decreased partial pressure of O2. Other types of oxygen deficiencies include:
anemic
anoxia (failure of the blood to transport adequate quantities of oxygen), stagnant anoxia
(the
slowing of the circulatory system), and histotoxic anoxia (the failure of respiratory
enzymes to
adequately function).
Anoxia can occur temporarily during normal respiratory system regulation of changing
cellular
needs. An example of this would be climbing a flight of stairs. The increased
oxygendemand of
the cells in providing the mechanical energy required to climb ultimately produces a
local hypoxia
in the muscle cell. The first noticeable response to this external stress is usually an
increase in
breathing rate. This is called increased alveolar ventilation. The rate of our breathing
is determined
by the need for O2 in the cells and is the first response to hypoxic conditions.
BODY RESPONSE TO ANOXIA
If increases in the rate of alveolar respiration are insufficient to supply the oxygen
needs of the
cells the respiratory system responds by general vasodilation. This allows a greater flow
of blood
in the circulatory system. The sympathetic nervous system also acts to stimulate
vasodilation
within the skeletal muscle. At the level of the capillaries the normally closed
precapillary sphincters
open allowing a large flow of blood through the muscles. In turn the cardiac output
increases both
in terms of heart rate and stroke volume. The stroke volume, however, does not
substantially
increase in the non-athlete (Langley, et.al., 1980). This demonstrates an obvious benefit
of regular
exercise and physical conditioning particularly for an individual who will be exposed to
high
altitudes. The heart rate is increased by the action of the adrenal medulla which
releases
catecholamines. These catecholamines work directly on the myocardium to strengthen
contraction. Another compensation mechanism is the release of renin by the kidneys. Renin
leads
to the production of angiotensin which serves to increase blood pressure (Langley,
Telford, and
Christensen, 1980). This helps to force more blood into capillaries. All of these changes
are a
regular and normal response of the body to external stressors. The question involved with
altitude
changes becomes what happens when the normal responses can no longer meet the oxygen
demand from the cells?
ACUTE MOUNTAIN SICKNESS
One possibility is that Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS) may occur. AMS is common at high
altitudes. At elevations over 10,000 feet, 75% of people will have mild symptoms
(Princeton,
1995). The occurrence of AMS is dependent upon the elevation, the rate of ascent to that
elevation, and individual susceptibility.
Acute Mountain Sickness is labeled as mild, moderate, or severe dependent on the
presenting
symptoms. Many people will experience mild AMS during the process of acclimatization to
a
higher altitude. In this case symptoms of AMS would usually start 12-24 hours after
arrival at a
higher altitude and begin to decrease in severity about the third day. The symptoms of
mild AMS
are headache, dizziness, fatigue, shortness of breath, loss of appetite, nausea,
disturbed sleep, and
a general feeling of malaise (Princeton, 1995). These symptoms tend to increase at night
when
respiration is slowed during sleep. Mild AMS does not interfere with normal activity and
symptoms generally subside spontaneously as the body acclimatizes to the higher
elevation.
Moderate AMS includes a severe headache that is not relieved by medication, nausea and
vomiting, increasing weakness and fatigue, shortness of breath, and decreased
coordination called
ataxia (Princeton, 1995). Normal activity becomes difficult at this stage of AMS,
although the
person may still be able to walk on their own. A test for moderate AMS is to have the
individual
attempt to walk a straight line heel to toe. The person with ataxia will be unable to
walk a straight
line. If ataxia is indicated it is a clear sign that immediate descent is required. In
the case of hiking
or climbing it is important to get the affected individual to descend before the ataxia
reaches the
point where they can no longer walk on their own.
Severe AMS presents all of the symptoms of mild and moderate AMS at an increased level
of
severity. In addition there is a marked shortness of breath at rest, the inability to
walk, a
decreasing mental clarity, and a potentially dangerous fluid buildup in the lungs.
ACCLIMATIZATION
There is really no cure for Acute Mountain Sickness other than acclimatization or descent
to a
lower altitude. Acclimatization is the process, over time, where the body adapts to the
decrease in
partial pressure of oxygen molecules at a higher altitude. The major cause of altitude
illnesses is a
rapid increase in elevation without an appropriate acclimatization period. The process
of
acclimatization generally takes 1-3 days at the new altitude. Acclimatization involves
several
changes in the structure and function of the body. Some of these changes happen
immediately in
response to reduced levels of oxygen while others are a slower adaptation. Some of the
most
significant changes are:
Chemoreceptor mechanism increases the depth of alveolar ventilation. This allows for an
increase
in ventilation of about 60% (Guyton, 1969). This is an immediate response to oxygen debt.
Over
a period of several weeks the capacity to increase alveolar ventilation may increase
600-700%.
Pressure in pulmonary arteries is increased, forcing blood into portions of the lung
which are
normally not used during sea level breathing.
The body produces more red blood cells in the bone marrow to carry oxygen. This process
may
take several weeks. Persons who live at high altitude often have red blood cell counts
50%
greater than normal.
The body produces more of the enzyme 2,3-biphosphoglycerate that facilitates the release
of
oxygen from hemoglobin to the body tissues (Tortora, 1993).
The acclimatization process is slowed by dehydration, over-exertion, alcohol and other
depressant drug consumption. Longer term changes may include an increase in the size of
the
alveoli, and decrease in the thickness of the alveoli membranes. Both of these changes
allow for
more gas transfer.
TREATMENT FOR AMS
The symptoms of mild AMS can be treated with pain medications for headache. Some
physicians
recommend the medication Diamox (Acetazolamide). Both Diamox and headache medication
appear to reduce the severity of symptoms, but do not cure the underlying problem of
oxygen
debt. Diamox, however, may allow the individual to metabolize more oxygen by breathing
faster.
This is especially helpful at night when respiratory drive is decreased. Since it takes a
while for
Diamox to have an effect, it is advisable to start taking it 24 hours before going to
altitude. The
recommendation of the Himalayan Rescue Association Medical Clinic is 125 mg. twice a
day.
The standard dose has been 250 mg., but their research shows no difference with the lower
dose
(Princeton, 1995). Possible side effects include tingling of the lips and finger tips,
blurring of
vision, and alteration of taste. These side effects may be reduced with the 125 mg. dose.
Side
effects subside when the drug is stopped. Diamox is a sulfonamide drug, so people who
are
allergic to sulfa drugs such as penicillin should not take Diamox. Diamox has also been
known to
cause severe allergic reactions to people with no previous history of Diamox or sulfa
allergies. A
trial course of the drug is usually conducted before going to a remote location where a
severe
allergic reaction could prove difficult to treat. Some recent data suggests that the
medication
Dexamethasone may have some effect in reducing the risk of mountain sickness when used
in
combination with Diamox (University of Iowa, 1995).
Moderate AMS requires advanced medications or immediate descent to reverse the problem.
Descending even a few hundred feet may help and definite improvement will be seen in
descents
of 1,000-2,000 feet. Twenty-four hours at the lower altitude will result in significant
improvements. The person should remain at lower altitude until symptoms have subsided (up
to 3
days). At this point, the person has become acclimatized to that altitude and can begin
ascending
again. Severe AMS requires immediate descent to lower altitudes (2,000 - 4,000 feet).
Supplemental oxygen may be helpful in reducing the effects of altitude sicknesses but
does not
overcome all the difficulties that may result from the lowered barometric pressure.
GAMOW BAG
This invention has revolutionized field treatment of high altitude illnesses. The Gamow
bag is
basically a portable sealed chamber with a pump. The principle of operation is identical
to the
hyperbaric chambers used in deep sea diving. The person is placed inside the bag and it
is
inflated. Pumping the bag full of air effectively increases the concentration of oxygen
molecules
and therefore simulates a descent to lower altitude. In as little as 10 minutes the bag
creates an
atmosphere that corresponds to that at 3,000 - 5,000 feet lower. After 1-2 hours in the
bag, the
person's body chemistry will have reset to the lower altitude. This lasts for up to 12
hours outside
of the bag which should be enough time to travel to a lower altitude and allow for
further
acclimatization. The bag and pump weigh about 14 pounds and are now carried on most
major
high altitude expeditions. The gamow bag is particularly important where the possibility
of
immediate descent is not feasible.
OTHER ALTITUDE-INDUCED ILLNESS
There are two other severe forms of altitude illness. Both of these happen less
frequently,
especially to those who are properly acclimatized. When they do occur, it is usually the
result of
an increase in elevation that is too rapid for the body to adjust properly. For reasons
not entirely
understood, the lack of oxygen and reduced pressure often results in leakage of fluid
through the
capillary walls into either the lungs or the brain. Continuing to higher altitudes
without proper
acclimatization can lead to potentially serious, even life-threatening illnesses.
HIGH ALTITUDE PULMONARY EDEMA (HAPE)
High altitude pulmonary edema results from fluid buildup in the lungs. The fluid in the
lungs
interferes with effective oxygen exchange. As the condition becomes more severe, the
level of
oxygen in the bloodstream decreases, and this can lead to cyanosis, impaired cerebral
function,
and death. Symptoms include shortness of breath even at rest, tightness in the chest,
marked
fatigue, a feeling of impending suffocation at night, weakness, and a persistent
productive cough
bringing up white, watery, or frothy fluid (University of Iowa, 1995.). Confusion, and
irrational
behavior are signs that insufficient oxygen is reaching the brain. One of the methods for
testing for
HAPE is to check recovery time after exertion. Recovery time refers to the time after
exertion
that it takes for heart rate and respiration to return to near normal. An increase in
this time may
mean fluid is building up in the lungs. If a case of HAPE is suspected an immediate
descent is a
necessary life-saving measure (2,000 - 4,000 feet). Anyone suffering from HAPE must be
evacuated to a medical facility for proper follow-up treatment. Early data suggests that
nifedipine
may have a protective effect against high altitude pulmonary edema (University of Iowa,
1995).
HIGH ALTITUDE CEREBRAL EDEMA (HACE)
High altitude cerebral edema results from the swelling of brain tissue from fluid
leakage.
Symptoms can include headache, loss of coordination (ataxia), weakness, and decreasing
levels
of consciousness including, disorientation, loss of memory, hallucinations, psychotic
behavior, and
coma. It generally occurs after a week or more at high altitude. Severe instances can
lead to
death if not treated quickly. Immediate descent is a necessary life-saving measure (2,000
- 4,000
feet). Anyone suffering from HACE must be evacuated to a medical facility for proper
follow-up
treatment.
CONCLUSION
The importance of oxygen to the functioning of the human body is critical. Thus the
effect of
decreased partial pressure of oxygen at higher altitudes can be pronounced. Each
individual
adapts at a different speed to exposure to altitude and it is hard to know who may be
affected by
altitude sickness. There are no specific factors such as age, sex, or physical condition
that
correlate with susceptibility to altitude sickness. Most people can go up to 8,000 feet
with
minimal effect. Acclimatization is often accompanied by fluid loss, so the ingestion of
large
amounts of fluid to remain properly hydrated is important (at least 3-4 quarts per day).
Urine
output should be copious and clear.
From the available studies on the effect of altitude on the human body it would appear
apparent
that it is important to recognize symptoms early and take corrective measures. Light
activity
during the day is better than sleeping because respiration decreases during sleep,
exacerbating the
symptoms. The avoidance of tobacco, alcohol, and other depressant drugs including,
barbiturates, tranquilizers, and sleeping pills is important. These depressants further
decrease the
respiratory drive during sleep resulting in a worsening of the symptoms. A high
carbohydrate diet
(more than 70% of your calories from carbohydrates) while at altitude also appears to
facilitate
recovery.
A little planning and awareness can greatly decrease the chances of altitude sickness.
Recognizing
early symptoms can result in the avoidance of more serious consequences of altitude
sickness.
The human body is a complex biochemical organism that requires an adequate supply of
oxygen
to function. The ability of this organism to adjust to a wide range of conditions is a
testament to its
survivability. The decreased partial pressure of oxygen with increasing altitude is one
of these
adaptations.
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