FREE ESSAY ON HISTORY OF GREEK THEARTER

HISTORY OF GREEK THEARTER

The History of Greek Theater
Theater and drama in Ancient Greece took form in about 5th century BCE, with the
Sopocles, the great writer of tragedy. In his plays and those of the same genre, heroes
and the ideals of life were
depicted and glorified. It was believed that man should live for honor and fame, his
action was courageous and glorious and his life would climax in a great and noble death.
Originally, the hero's recognition was created by selfish behaviors and little thought of
service to others. As the Greeks grew toward city-states and colonization, it became the
destiny and 
ambition of the hero to gain honor by serving his city. The second major characteristic
of the early Greek world was the supernatural. The two worlds were not separate, as the
gods lived in the same world 
as the men, and they interfered in the men's lives as they chose to. It was the gods who
sent suffering and evil to men. In the plays of Sophocles, the gods brought about the
hero's downfall because of a 
tragic flaw in the character of the hero.
In Greek tragedy, suffering brought knowledge of worldly matters and of the individual.
Aristotle attempted to explain how an audience could observe tragic events and still have
a pleasurable 
experience. Aristotle, by searching the works of writers of Greek tragedy, Aeschulus,
Euripides and Sophocles (whose Oedipus Rex he considered the finest of all Greek
tragedies), arrived at his 
definition of tragedy. This explanation has a profound influence for more than twenty
centuries on those writing tragedies, most significantly Shakespeare. Aristotle's
analysis of tragedy began with 
a description of the effect such a work had on the audience as a "catharsis" or purging
of the emotions. He decided that catharsis was the purging of two specific emotions, pity
and fear. The hero has 
made a mistake due to ignorance, not because of wickedness or corruption. Aristotle used
the word "hamartia", which is the "tragic flaw" or offense committed in ignorance. For
example, Oedipus is 
ignorant of his true parentage when he commits his fatal deed. Oedipus Rex is one of the
stories in a three-part myth called the Thebian cycle. The structure of most all Greek
tragedies is similar to Oedipus Rex. Such plays are divided in to five parts, the
prologue or introduction, the "prados" or entrance of the chorus, four episode or acts
separates from one another by "stasimons" or choral odes, and "exodos", the action after
the last stasimon. These odes are lyric poetry, lines chanted or sung as the chorus moved
rhythmically 
across the orchestra. The lines that accompanied the movement of the chorus in one
direction were called "strophe", the return movement was accompanied by lines called
"antistrophe". The choral ode might contain more than one strophe or antistrophe.
Greek tragedy originated in honor of the god of wine, Dionysus, the patron god of
tragedy. The performance took place in an open-air theater. The word tragedy is derived
from the term 
"tragedia" or "goat-song", named for the goat skins the chorus wore in the performance.
The plots came from legends of the Heroic Age. Tragedy grew from a choral lyric, as
Aristotle said, tragedy is 
largely based on life's pity and splendor.
Plays were performed at dramatic festivals, the two main ones being the Feast of the
Winepress in January and the City Dionysia at the end of March. The Proceeding began with
the procession of choruses
and actors of the three competing poets. A herald then announced the poet's names and the
titles of their plays. On this day it was likely that the image of Dionysus was taken in
a procession from his temple
beside the theater to a point near the road he had once taken to reach Athens from the
north, then it was brought back by torch light, amid a carnival celebration, to the
theater itself, where his priest occupied 
the central seat of honor during the performances. On the first day of the festival there
were contests between the choruses, five of men and five of boys. Each chorus consisted
of fifty men or boys. On the next three days, a "tragic tetralogy" (group made up of four
pieces, a trilogy followed by a satyric drama) was performed each morning. This is
compared to the Elizabethan habit of following a tragedy with a 
jig. During the Peloponnesian Wars, this was followed by a comedy each afternoon.
The Father of the drama was Thesis of Athens, 535 BC, who created the first actor. The
actor performed in intervals between the dancing of the chorus and conversing at times
with the leader of the chorus. The tragedy was further developed when new myths became
part of the performance, changing the nature of the chorus to a group appropriate to the
individual story. A second actor was added by Aeschylus and a third actor was added by
Sophocles, and the number of the chorus was fixed at fifteen. The chorus' part was
gradually reduced, and the dialogue of the actors became increasingly important. The word
"chorus" meant "dance or "dancing ground", which was how dance evolved into the drama.
Members of the chorus were characters in the play who commented on the action. They drew
the 
audience into the play and reflected the audience's reactions.
The Greek plays were performed in open-air theaters. Nocturnal scenes were performed even
in sunlight. The area in front of the stages was called the "orchestra", the area in
which the chorus moved
and danced. There was no curtain and the play was presented as a whole with no act or
scene divisions. There was a building at the back of the stage called a skene, which
represented the front of a palace or temple. It contained a central doorway and two other
stage entrances, one at the left and the other at the right, representing the country and
the city. Sacrifices were performed at the altar of Dionysus, and the 
chorus performed in the orchestra, which surrounded the altar. The theatron, from where
the word "theater" is derived, is where the audience sat, built on a hollowed-out
hillside. Seated of honor, found 
in the front and center of the theatron, were for public officials and priests. he
seating capacity of the theater was about 17,000. The audience of about 14,000 was
lively, noisy, emotional and unrestrained. They ate, applauded, cheered, hissed, and
kicked their wooden seats in disgust. Small riots were known to break out if the audience
was dissatisfied. Women were allowed to be spectators of tragedy, and probably even
comedy. Admission was free or nominal, and the poor were paid for by the state. The Attic
dramatists, like the Elizabethans, had a public of all classes. Because of the size of
the audience, the actors must also have been physically remote. The sense of remoteness
may have been heightened by masked, statuesque figures of the actors whose acting
depended largely on voice gestures and 
grouping. Since there were only three actors, the same men in the same play had to play
double parts. At first, the dramatists themselves acted, like Shakespeare. Gradually,
acting became professionalized.
Simple scenery began with Sophocles, but changes of scene were rare and stage properties
were also rare, such as an occasional altar, a tomb or an image of gods. Machinery was
used for lightning or
thunder or for lifting celestial persons from heaven and back, or for revealing the
interior of the stage building. This was called "deus ex machina", which means god from
the machine, and was a technical device that used a metal crane on top of the skene
building, which contained the dressing rooms, from which a dummy was suspended to
represent a god. This device was first employed by Euripides to give a miraculous
conclusion to a tragedy. In later romantic literature, this device was no longer used and
the miracles supplied by it were replace by the sudden appearance of a rich uncle, the
discovery or new wills, or of infants changed at birth.
Many proprieties of the Greek plays were attached to violence. Therefore, it was a rule
that acts of violence must take place off stage. This carried through to the Elizabethan
theater which avoided 
the horrors of men being flayed alive or Glouster's eyes being put out in full view of an
audience (King Lear). When Medea went inside the house to murder her children, the chorus
was left outside, chanting in
anguish, to represent the feelings the chorus had and could not act upon, because of
their metaphysical existence.
The use of music in the theater began very simply consisting of a single flute player
that accompanied the chorus. Toward the close of the century, more complicated solo
singing was developed by Euripides. There could-then be large-scale spectacular events,
with stage crowds and chariots, particularly in plays by Aeschylus.
Greek comedy was derived from two different sources, the more known being the choral
element which included ceremonies to stimulate fertility at the festival of Dionysus or
in ribald drunken revel
in his honor. The term comedy is actually drawn from "komos", meaning song of revelry.
The second source of Greek comedy was that from the Sicilian "mimes", who put on very
rude performances where they would make satirical allusions to audience members as they
ad-libbed their 
performances.
In the beginning, comedy was frank, indecent and sexual. The plots were loosely and
carelessly structured and included broad farce and buffoonery. The performers were coarse
and obscene while using
satire to depict important contemporary moral, social and political issues of Athenian
life. The comedy included broad satire of well known persons of that time. 
Throughout the comedic period in Greece, there were three distinctive eras of comedies as
the genre progressed. Old comedy, which lasted from approximately 450 to 400 BCE, was
performed at the
festivals of Dionysus following the tragedies. There would be contests between three
poets, each exhibiting one comedy. Each comedy troupe would consist of one or two actors
and a chorus of twenty-four. The actors wore masks and "soccus", or sandals, and the
chorus often wore fantastic costumes. Comedies were constructed in five parts, the
prologue, where the leading character conceived the "happy idea", the parodos or entrance
of the chorus, the agon, a dramatized debate between the proponent and opponent of the
"happy idea" where the opposition was always defeated, the parabasis, the coming forth of
the chorus where they directly addressed the audience and aired the poet's views on most
any matter the poet felt like having expressed, and the episodes, where the "happy idea"
was put into practical application. Aristotle highly criticized comedy, saying that it
was just a ridiculous imitation of lower types of man with eminent faults emphasized for
the audience's pleasure, such as a mask worn to show 
deformity, or for the man to do something like slip and fall on a banana peel.
Aristophanes, a comic poet of the old comedy period, wrote comedies which came to
represent old comedy, as his style was widely copied by other poets. In his most famous
works, he used dramatic satire on some of the most famous philosophers and poets of the
era. In "The Frogs" he ridiculed Euripides, and in "The Clouds" he mocked Socrates. His
works followed all the basic principles of old comedy, but he added a facet of cleverness
and depth in feeling to his lyrics, in an attempt to appeal to both the emotions and
intellect of the audience. 
Middle comedy, which dominated from 400 to 336 BCE, was very transitional, having aspects
of both old comedy and new comedy. It was more timid than old comedy, having many less
sexual gestures and innuendoes. It was concerned less with people and politics, and more
with myths and tragedies. The chorus began its fade into the background, becoming more of
an interlude than the important component 
it used to be. Aristophanes wrote a few works in middle comedy, but the most famous
writers of the time were Antiphanes of Athens and Alexis of Thurii, whose compositions
have mostly been lost and only 
very few of their found works have been full extant plays. In new comedy which lasted
from 336 to 250 BCE, satire is almost entirely replaced by social comedy involving the
family and individual character development, and the themes of romantic love. A closely
knit plot in new comedy was based on intrigue, identities, relationships or a combination
of these. A subplot was often utilized as well. The characters in new comedy are very
similar in each work, possibly including a father who is very miser like, a son who is
mistreated but deserving, and other people with stereotypical personas. The chief writer
of new comedy was Menander, and as with the prominent writers of the middle comedic era,
most of his works have been lost, but other dramatists of the time period, like Terence
and Platus, had imitated and adapted his methods. Menander's The Curmudgeon is the only
complete extant play known by him to date, and it served as the basis for the later Latin
writers to adapt.
Adventure, brilliance, invention, romance and scenic effect, together with delightful
lyrics and wisdom, were the gifts of the Greek theater. These conventions strongly
affected subsequent plays and playwrights, having put forth influence on theater
throughout the centuries.
Bibliography
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Bibliography
1. Lucas, F.L., Greek Tragedy and Comedy, New York: The Viking Press, 
1967.
2. McAvoy, William, Dramatic Tragedy, New York: McGraw-Hill Book 
Company, 1971.
3. Murray, Gilbert, Euripides and His Age, New York: Oxford University 
Press, 1955.
4. Reinhold, Meyer, Ph.D., Essentials of Greek and Roman Classics, New 
York: Barron's Educational Series, Inc., 1960.
5. Trawick, Buckner B., World Literature, Volume I: Greek, Roman, 
Oriental and Medieval 
William McAvoy, Dramatic Tragedy, 1971, p. ix
Ibid., p. x
William McAvoy, Dramatic Tragedy, 1971, p. xi
Ibid., p. vii
Meyer Reinhold, Ph.D., Essentials of Greek and Roman Classics, 1960, 
p.60
F.L. Lucas, Greek Tragedy and Comedy, 1968, p. 3
Ibid., p. 9
Ibid., p. 10
Ibid., p. 10
Gilbert Murray, Euripides and His Age, 1955, p. 145
F.L. Lucas, Greek Tragedy and Comedy, 1968, p. 12
Ibid., p.62
Gilbert Murray, Euripides and His Age, 1955, p.146
Gilbert Murray, Euripides and His Age, 1955, p. 153
F.L. Lucas, Greek Tragedy and Comedy, 1968, p. 12
Buckner B. Trawick, World Literature, Volume I: Greek, Roman, 
Oriental and Medieval Classics, 1958, p.
76
Meyer Reinhold, Ph.D., Essentials of Greek and Roman Classics, 1960, 
p. 114
Ibid., p. 238
Ibid., p. 253
Buckner B. Trawick, World Literature, Volume I: Greek, Roman, Oriental 
and Medieval Classics, 1958, p. 76
Meyer Reinhold, Ph.D., Essentials of Greek and Roman Classics, 1960, 
p. 254