FREE ESSAY ON COMPUTERS RESEARCH PAPER

COMPUTERS RESEARCH PAPER

THESIS: The computer is a complex combination of millions of objects perfectly pieced
together with the skill and talent of many men and women over the years. 
OUTLINE:
I. People over the centuries have been developing many different devices and theories
that have contributed to today's computer.
A. Boolean Algebra
B. Microcomputers
II. A computer uses different languages and theories to perform its functions.
1. Boolean Algebra Today
2. Binary Language
3. Machine Language
III. The computer is a complex electronic structure made up of many devices.
1. Hard Disk
2. Memory
1. Random Access Memory
2. Read Only Memory
3. Cache Memory
3. Motherboard
1. BIOS
2. POST BIOS
4. Processor
1. John von Neumann
2. Logic Gates
3. CISC and RISC
4. Bus Interface
5. Port
1. USB
2. SAN
INTRODUCTION:
The computer is a complex combination of millions of objects perfectly pieced together
with the skill and talent of many men and women over many years. They have been
developing many different devices and theories that have contributed to today's computer.
Although the concepts are difficult to understand, the typical PC is easy to build and
even easier to run. With its easy-to-remove parts and difficult to understand theories,
it brings a wide variety to the technical world.
CONCLUSION:
All of these theories, functions, and devices have contributed to the way the world is
today. The combination of the five main devices (the hard disk, memory, motherboard,
processor, and ports) has made up the computer. The languages and history of the computer
have contributed to the vast knowledge we hold. The vast knowledge has been taken for
granted, but no one could really understand all the difficult concepts presented. 
BUILDING COMPUTERS
"Boolean Logic." Tech Web. Online. Internet. Available 
HTTP://www.techweb.com/ 
Every computer works using a type of algebra called "Boolean Logic." In the mid 19th
century, an English mathematician, George Boole, developed this algebraic theory which is
now used every day by computer engineers and programmers. The primary operations use AND,
OR, and NOT, but the computer's logic gates use variations of this, such as NAND, NOR,
XOR, and XNOR. This logic is implemented as transistors, electronic switches that are
opened and closed by pulsing. AND requires both inputs to be present, and OR requires one
input to be present to provide output. NOT reverses the input; if there is no pulse on
the input line, the source goes directly to the output, but if there is a pulse on the
input line, switch one is closed, and the current moves to switch two. These logic gates
make up circuits which make up logical devices, such as the central processing unit. (I,
II).
Brain, Marshall. "How Hard Disks Work." Online. Internet. Available
HTTP://www.howstuffworks.com/
A hard disk is a device used to store programs and data for later use. A typical hard
disk holds eight to eleven gigabytes, which is stored in the form of files. Inside the
hard disk is a platter which spins 3,600 to 7,200 RPMs. All the information that needs to
be recalled is recorded on this platter. The information is divided in sectors, and
sectors are grouped into tracts. Hard disks are used in nearly every desktop computer and
server in use today; you can even find them in some VCR and camcorder devices instead of
tapes. (III).
Dunphy, Chris. "RAM-O-Rama: Your Field Guide to Memory Types." Maximum PC Mar. 2000: 67.
"Extra memory never hurt." Inside every computer is the "fastest memory of all," the
processor's registers. A typical central processing unit has a few dozen registers, and
each one is able to store a single value which is directly wired into the CPU. Whenever
the CPU needs to "crunch" a number that is not already in a register, a memory request is
generated, and the CPU's internal memory controller goes to work. All modern CPUs try to
crunch a constant stream of instructions by throwing some Level 1 cache into the mix.
Typical word processing and web "surfing" can be handled with ease by this memory.
(III).
Frederick, Franz J. Guide to Microcomputers. Washington, D.C.: Association for
Educational Communications and Technology, 1980.
When the computers were in their earliest stages, desktop computers were known as
microcomputers. Their monitors were television screens, cassette recorders were used to
save information, onboard memory held four to 64K, and the CPU was very basic, nothing
like today's computers. The main language at the time was BASIC, and like its name, it
was basic. The computer had three main problems: it had difficulty reading programs and
files from the cassette, mysterious changing values in variables or programs, and
problems in reading programs or data from a disk. Microcomputers today are onboard
processors used to help the computer run programs. (I, III).
Gelernter, David, and Keith Ferrell. "Computer." World Book Encyclopedia. 1994 ed.
The World Book defines the computer as "a machine that performs calculations and
processes information with astonishing speed and precision," and it divides it into five
main parts. First is the memory which receives data and holds it for later use. Second,
the processor changes data into useful information and puts it to work. Next is the input
and output equipment: input equipment enters instructions and data, and output equipment
put information into understandable form. Last is the database which is used to store
information in a form that can be easily searched through. These five parts make up the
most complex machine in the world. (III).
Halfhill, Tom. "Swinging the Sledgehammer." Maximum PC Jan. 2000: 37.
This year, the two major competitors in processors are coming out with new
microprocessors. AMD's Sledgehammer will remain x86 compatible while expanding some of
the instructions, registers, data paths, and memory addressing to 64-bits. It is able to
handle data chunks twice as largely as the older x86 chips can handle. The problems with
this hardware are that an upgrade of your system and software is required. Also, Intel is
coming out with the IA-64. This chip is 64-bits, but also requires an upgrade in the
system. Who really needs 64-bits? The only computers that require a 64-bit are big data
bases, servers, etc.; however, normal computers performing every day computing, 3D
graphics, and multimedia extensions are better running 32-bits. (III).
Hoernes, Gerhard E. Introduction to Boolean Algebra and Logic Design. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1964. 
Boolean Algebra, a complex series using base 10 numbers, has been the basics of computers
since the beginning. Logic blocks are simple, basic circuits interconnected in large
quantities to perform the various functions of the computer using Boolean Algebra. This
algebra is the basis for binary signals which is the basis for all computer languages.
Each decimal digit has 10 possible values, and a voltage on a wire can only have two
values; therefore, one wire is not enough to represent a decimal. Using ten wires, each
wire can stand for one of the 10 values. Only one of the 10 wires is allowed to be at the
1 Level, the other nine are at the 0 level. Any algebraic equation can be converted to
this type of problem. (I, II).
Machrone, Bill. "USB is Wonderful/Terrible." PC Magazine 3 Jan 2000: 67.
All over the world people are discovering a relatively new technology, USB. "There's
virtually no peripheral produced today that is not available in a USB version." Both
competitors, Intel and Microsoft, are pushing to eliminate the legacy and serial ports.
However, almost no testing has been performed for USB compatibility, conflicts, or
performance. It remains widely inconsistent. Throughout the direct attacks on USB, Intel
has produced a new version, the USB 2.0, which is 40 times faster than today's version.
Almost no one outside of Intel believes anything should be faster than today's serial
ports. (III).
Norton, Peter. Inside the PC. Indianapolis: Sam's Publishing, 1995.
"The whole point of a computer is to carry out a series of steps, called a program." This
device contains eight major hardware elements: the processor, a set of input and output
devices, a set of high-speed memory and slower storage devices to save and retrieve
programs and data, a bus or set of busses that connects the microprocessor to its memory,
a set of adapters that enables the microprocessor to communicate with and control input
and output devices or storage devices, port expansion slots, and low-speed storage
devices where data and programs are stored long term. The motherboard is the defining
element of the computer and system unit, and it contains the microprocessor which is the
most important part of the computer. The ROM BIOS is the read only memory device that
contains software used to "talk" to the system's hardware. ROM is read-only memory, and
BIOS is an interface, connector, and translator between the computer hardware and
software programs. The two parts of the ROM BIOS are the test and initialization programs
that check to see that the computer is in working order and the routines, who provide the
detailed and intimate control of the various parts of the computer. (III).
Patterson, Gibson, and Katz. "A Case for Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive Disks (RAID)."
U. of California. 8 March, 1975.
RAID, no it is not the bug spray, is a way to combine multiple, small, inexpensive disk
drives into an array of disk drives which yield performance exceeding that of a Single
Large Expensive Drive (SLED) which appears to the computer as a single logical storage
unit. "Striping," fundamental to RAID, is the method of concentrating multiple drives
into one storage unit. This process involves partitioning each drive's storage space into
stripes, which may be as small as one sector or as large as several megabytes. The
stripes are then interleaved "round-robin," so that the combined space is composed
alternately of stripes from each drive. The type of application environment, input and
output or data intensive, determines whether it is large or small. Without striping, the
disk's input and output load is never perfectly even. (III).
PC Guide. Online. Internet. 4 Feb. 2000. Available HTTP://www.PCGuide.com/
Have you ever wondered what happens when you press a key on your keyboard? When a key is
pressed, like F, the keyboard sends an electrical signal, a scan code, which the keyboard
controller interprets and stores in its memory. It then sends an interrupt, which gives
the information to the processor. The processor then sends it to the operating system
which sends it to the program that is running, a word processor for example. The program
would decide how the key needs to affect it, and it would perform the action, add the F
to the line you are on. Each time the video card refreshes, the letter would still be on
that same line, in the same place. A video card refreshes 60 to 100 times a second.
(III).
The PC Technology Guide. Online. Internet. 14 Dec. 1999. Available
HTTP://www.pctechguide.com/
The "heart" of the computer is the motherboard. This device holds the processor, memory,
and expansion slots; and it connects directly or indirectly with every part of the
computer. The motherboard is made up of a chipset known as "glue logic," some code in ROM
and various interconnections or buses. The ROM, read only memory, is separate from the
main system memory, which is used for loading and running software; ROM contains the
basic input/output system, BIOS. The code and data in the ROM BIOS need not be reloaded
every time the computer is restarted, and they cannot be corrupted by wayward
applications that write into the wrong memory port. (III).
"Processors." The PC Technology Guide. Online. Internet. 14 Dec. 1999. Available
HTTP://www.pctechguide.com/
In 1945, John von Neumann, in his first draft of "A Report on the EDVAC," first suggested
storing a sequence of instructions in the same memory as the data. He suggested four
parts: the Central Arithmetical unit, Central Control unit, memory, and Input/Output
devices. The microprocessor is responsible for everything the computer does, determines
which operating systems can be used, which software packages the computer can run, how
much energy it uses, and how stable the system will be. The basic structure of the
processor contains five parts: the core, branch predictor, floating point unit, primary
cache, and bus interface. The CISC, complex instruction set computer, uses microcode to
execute all instruction sets; and RISC, reduced instruction set computer, keeps
instruction size constant, bans the indirect addressing mode, and retains only the
instructions that can be overlapped to execute in one machine cycle or less, very fast.
The CISC is traditionally used, but the RISC is cheaper and faster. RISC, though, puts a
greater burden on the software. (III).
Rathbone, Andy. Upgrading and Fixing PCs for Dummies. Indianapolis: IDG Books Worldwide,
Inc., 1995.
According to Webster's Dictionary, a computer is defined as "an automatic electronic
machine for performing calculations." The PC has many different basic parts: the case,
floppy drive, hard drive, serial port, parallels port, motherboard, Central Processing
Unit, math coprocessor, and cards. "Computers are difficult to destroy; in fact, PCs are
easier to fix than cars." The parts of a computer are designed to be "modeler." Most
wires are color coded, and the mechanisms are numbered. There is very little that can go
wrong in a well maintained PC. They require upgrades and annual cleaning but not much
more. (III).
Taschek, James. "Big Storage." Smart Reseller. 24 Oct. 1999: 24.
True SAN Networks' 6000 FC offers speed and space for storage. It is a fibre channel that
is compliant throughout. True SAN has a controller with multiple 10-bay drive arrays and
offers speed first and foremost with data transfer rates reaching 95 Mbps. True SAN
scales easily, adapts well for specific application needs, supports hosts on multiple
operating systems and up to 125 devices, and provides multiple data routes back to the
user for higher availability. 6000 FC thrives in an environment where big-block transfers
are performed. True SAN is actively building its reseller channel and is looking for
solutions providers with heavy storage and networking experience. (III).